Monday, September 30, 2019

Men and Women in Society

Well obviously, men and women are different. In society however men and women play very different roles. Used to be, men were looked at as the dominant one in a relationship and society. Now a day women are becoming dominant in more ways than one. For example, in the job world, government, relationships, freedom, and sex are just some of the categories that women have risen in, in society. More women are in positions of power and authority.Even though, because of the past, men and women will never be treated the same, in society mostly men and women are treated fairly equal. There is little to no discrimination in the job field or the government against women in society. Men are still usually looked at as a higher class than women but that is just because of the past events that have happened in society. The world is becoming an all-around equal place. The history of women in the American labor force has been shaped by diverse cultural, legal, demographic, and ethno-racial influences .Like men, women in preindustrial America contributed to their household and community economies through paid and unpaid labor, but the material rewards of their labor were limited by cultural beliefs, social practices, and laws that subordinated women to men. Except by special legal arrangement, married women could not sign labor contracts, own property, or claim their own wages. Some women did work for wages, but those who did, even unmarried women and widows, clustered in lower-paying occupations and earned lower wages than men.Initially, these conditions were reproduced, and even accentuated, as the industrial economy developed. As families became more dependent on cash for survival, free women (as well as free men) increased their participation in the paid labor force. Especially numerous as seamstresses in the needle trades and in domestic work, women were also essential to the emerging factories. Other women worked as members of â€Å"family† production units (in shoem aking or retail shops, for example) and as homeworkers in textiles, shoes, or other products–patterns of work that still persist.Laws granting married women legal rights to their wages and to property became common only in the late nineteenth century. The growing identification of men as â€Å"breadwinners† and the rise of an urban middle class (with its status-conscious emphasis on the â€Å"lady of leisure†) further reinforced the tendency to view women as secondary wage-earners, regardless of their actual contributions to family survival. From the late nineteenth century onward, U. S. -born white women enjoyed steadily expanding access to nonagricultural and nonindustrial occupations. They increasingly found jobs as office clerks and secretaries and in retailing.Benefiting from expanded educational opportunities, white, middle-class women in the late nineteenth century entered the professions in growing numbers, initially as teachers, librarians, social worke rs, and nurses, and later in a variety of career paths, from firefighting and police work to the law, medicine, the ministry, higher education, and in the corporate world. Historically, patterns of participation in the paid labor force have varied dramatically by marital status as well as by ethnicity and nativity. â€Å"Until the 1930s, most wage-earning women were unmarried.As late as 1960, only one-third of married women were gainfully employed–a figure that obscures a common pattern of irregular yet continuing labor-force participation. Only in the late twentieth century did that pattern decisively shift. In 1997, 61. 3 percent of married women were in the labor force† (Boydston). Although only in the late twentieth century did most labor unions show an interest in organizing female workers, women in the paid labor force long constituted an aggressive force for reform. In the government of the U. S. women, such as Hilary Clinton, are just as strong and knowledgeabl e as men.Women have run for president, there has been a woman as secretary of state, as have many other women who have been incorporated into the government staff. Men have always been involved in the government. The obvious facts of this are all of the male presidents that have been in office, there has never been a female president, not to say that there never will be. There will be, one day, a women in office running the United States. â€Å"In the 1995 World Conference on Women, 189 governments committed to â€Å"ensure women’s equal access to and full participation in power structures and decision-making. To fulfill this strategic objective, governments also pledged to establish the goal of â€Å"gender balance in governmental bodies and committees as well as in public administrative entities and in the judiciary. † Six years later, not much has changed – women’s representation in politics remains dismally low. †(UNDP 2). â€Å"Today women a re only 13. 7 percent of parliaments worldwide according to data collected by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, a mere 0. 6 percent increase annually. In the Asia Pacific, women are 14. 2 percent of national parliaments† (UNDP 1).At this rate, it will take 75 years before women attain equal representation in national governments. At the local level, the situation is no different – women make up a small percentage of legislative councils and other local bodies in most countries in the world. Only Sweden, Denmark and Finland in Europe have reached a critical mass of 30 percent women in local governments, while South Africa and Trinidad and Tobago come close at 28 and 23 percent respectively. In the Asia Pacific, women’s representation in local governments has ranged from a low two percent to a high 30 percent (e. . India, Bangladesh and New Zealand)(UNDP 2-3). Even though women are told that they are equal in the government, according to the facts, they really are not . There are the obvious difference about men and women and sex, but men and women have different characteristics when it comes to sex. It probably won't surprise you to learn that researchers have found that men tend to initiate sex more frequently than do women. Researchers have also found that men tend to be more â€Å"goal oriented,† to consider the act of sex, especially orgasm, to be what love making is all about.Women, in contrast, tend to focus more on tenderness and the quality of their emotional relationship. Keep in mind that generalizations about human behavior, although true in the abstract, do not apply to individuals. Most men and women apparently have different emphases on sexual intercourse and emotional relationships, but any particular individual may vary from this tendency. A particular man, for example, may be more oriented toward intimacy, a particular woman toward having sex. Generalizations, then, can lead to stereotypes that paint everyone with the sam e broad brushstroke, causing us to overlook individual differences.One of the ways our culture inhibits women's sexuality is through stereotypes. A sexually promiscuous man is often looked up to by his friends. He is seen as a success in sexual matters, a conqueror, a sexual victor. In contrast, a woman who has many sexual partners is not as likely to be viewed in the same way. Questions are likely to be raised about why she is â€Å"like that. † People may refer to her by negative terms, such as whore. Although this double standard of stereotypes is easing, it persists. When it comes to virginity men and women typically re viewed different. Women expressed more positive feelings about their decision, and they were more apt to say they were proud or satisfied with their virginity. Men, in contrast, were more apt to say they felt embarrassed or even guilty about their virginity. The reason for this difference in attitude about virginity is likely due to gender roles, to differ ences about what is expected of men and women. There appears to be a general idea that if a woman is a virgin, she is one by choice, but if a man is a virgin, he has problems of some sort.It seems that a woman can wait for the right person, or for marriage, but a man ought to be seeking sex–and the more sex he has, the manlier he is. In short, being a virgin may challenge a man's masculinity, but not a woman's femininity. In relationships between men and women some say that men and women can just be friends. They way men chose their friends is not just my the female’s personality. A man choses his female friends by how attracted he is to them. Even if it is just a small attraction, its still there. A man isn’t going to initiate friendship with someone he deems â€Å"ugly†, or â€Å"unattractive†.The same goes for women. So, in essence men and women cannot just be friends. There is always something more there to tempt either the man or the women, wh ether he/she is in another relationship or not, to have some kind of whether it be physical or emotional connection with that â€Å"friend†. When polled, 58% said yes , and 42% said no men and women cannot just be friends ( Friends). So really there are no definite answers to this question. Throughout history, women's rights have been the subject of much debate and controversy.The concept of a woman's ‘right' can take a variety of forms including voting, reproductive control, equality in the workplace and service in the military. In most societies the women's movement has faced opposition and equality has been hard won. Equal rights campaigners have championed the movement with the goal of establishing fair and comparable treatment for women under law. â€Å"Evidence dating from around 8500 B. C suggests that in Ancient Egyptian society's work was divided along gender lines with the women assuming agricultural duties and the men taking on the role of hunter/gathererâ⠂¬  (sampson).Progress has been made over the decades, but there is still debate over some aspects of women's rights and the extent to which they have effectively redressed the prior imbalance. In a 2009 report published by the Department of Labor, it is stated that on average women earn approximately 80 percent of the salary a man is paid for the same job. Whilst this is an improvement from 30 years before, when a woman earned 62 percent of a man's salary, it does still not represent full parity.Reproductive rights are also a contested issue with opinions divided on whether abortion should remain legal. †In a 2009 poll by CBS news, 23 percent of respondents believed abortion should be illegal versus 34 percent fully supportive of abortion without constraint, and 40 percent in favor of keeping the practice legal but with stricter controls† (Sampson). Even though women have rose in society there is always that barrier that was created long ago restricting some peopleâ₠¬â„¢s views of women’s’ freedom and power in society. Men and women also tend to handle different situations differently.Perhaps if something breaks, the woman is more apt to be calm about the situation when the man is more apt to have a complete melt down about the situation. When an argument happens and the man is wrong he backs down, when a woman is wrong she back tracks her point and somehow proves the man wrong, or so he thinks. When women are right they don’t boast or â€Å"rub it in† so to speak. When men are right they are the first ones to say â€Å"I told you so†. Are women naturally more risk-averse or less inclined to enter a competitive situation? Or are they trained to be that way?Why women and men might have different preferences or risk attitudes has been discussed but not tested by economists. Broadly speaking, those differences may be due to nurture, nature, or some combination of the two. For instance, boys are pushed to take ris ks and act competitively when participating in sports, and girls are often encouraged to remain cautious. Thus, the choices made by men could be due to the nurturing received from parents or peers. Similarly, the disinclination of women to take risks or act competitively could be the result of parental or peer pressure not to do so. Educational psychologists argue that the gendered aspect of individuals' behaviour is brought into play by the gender of others with whom they interact, and that there may be more pressure for girls to maintain their gender identity in schools where boys are present than for boys when girls are present. In a coeducational environment, girls are more explicitly confronted with adolescent subculture (such as personal attractiveness to members of the opposite sex) than they are in a single-sex environment. This may lead them to conform to society's expectations of how girls should behave to avoid social rejection. †( Booth).If competitive behaviour or risk avoidance is viewed as being a part of female gender identity, while risk-seeking is a part of male gender identity, then a coeducational school environment might lead girls to make less competitive and risky choices than boys. It is hypothesized that hypothesized that woman and men may differ in their propensity to choose a risky outcome for several reasons – innate references or because their innate preferences are modified by pressure to conform to gender-stereotypes. Single-sex environments are likely to modify students' risk-taking preferences in economically important ways.Our specific conjectures were that girls from single-sex schools are less risk averse than girls from coed schools, and that girls in same-gender groups are less risk averse than girls in coed groups. It has been conjectured that girls in same-gender environments (single-sex schooling or same-gender experimental groups) are no less risk-averse than boys. Naturally it is assumed that women are le ss risky than boys this is because the women always feels like she has to be the protector and if she is taking risks she is not able to protect the ones taking risks.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Limiting Reagents Lab Essay

Problem: What mass of precipitate will form when 1.69g of CuCl2.2H20 reacts with 1.31g of aluminium? Aspect 3: Materials: > 150 mL beaker > Erlenmeyer Flask > 100ml Graduated Cylinder > Funnel; > Scoopula > Electronic Balance > Stir Rod > Aluminum Foil > CuCl2.2H20 > Distilled Water Procedure: Day 1 > Rinse beakerwith distilled water. > Mass 1.69g of CuCl2.2H2O. > Add to beaker and add 50mL of distilled water. > Mass aluminum. Fold in 1/2 & coil loosely. > Place in beaker and let sit overnight. Day 2 > Pull out Aluminum and rinse into beaker > Mass filter paper, put name on it > Put paper in funnel and funnel into the Erlenmeyer flas. > Pour in mixture. Rinse beaker three times. > Rinse funnel and paper twice. > Remove Paper and let dry overnight. Day 3 > Mass filter paper Data Collection and Processing (DCP) Aspect 1: Recording Raw Data: Mass of CuCl2.2H2O – 1.93g Mass of Al – ? (The massing of the aluminum was forgotten) Experimental mass of precipitate = .69g Aspect 2: Processing Data 2Al(s) + 3CuCl2.2H2O –> 3Cu(s) + 6H2O(l) + 2AlCl3(aq) m Al=1.93g M Al= 26.98 g/mol m 3CuCl2.2H2o = 1.69 g M 3CuCl2.2H2o = 152.47 g/mol (Chem 20 Data Booklet) m Cu = ? n CuCl2.2H2O = 1.93g / 170.49 g/mol n CuCl2.2H2O = .011320312 mol 3 mol CuCl2.2H2O = 3 mols Cu n Cu = .011320312 mol m Cu = .011320312 mol x 63.55 g/mol m Cu = .719g % yield = .69 / .719 = 96% Aspect 3: Experimental mass of Cu(s) precipitate = .69g Theoretical mass of Cu (s) precipitate = .719g % yield = 96% Conclusion and Evaluation (CE) Aspect 1: Conclusion: The mass of precipitate that forms when 1.93g of CuCl2.2H20 reacts with 1.31g of aluminum is .69 g. The % yield was 96%. The massing of aluminum was forgotten but when another piece was massed and the numbers were worked out, it was shown that there was an excess of aluminum and that the CuCl2.2H2O was the limiting reagent. Aspect 2: Evaluate: There were .029g of Cu precipitate less than expected. It is likely that some of the copper went into the Erlenmeyer or was stuck on the funnel. Despite thorough rinsing of the filter paper, some of the precipitate got through the filter paper and into the Erlenmeyer. Aspect 3 Improving Experimental Design: Instead of one piece of filter paper, two pieces should be used. This would lead to less precipitate going into the Erlenmeyer. Also, the water in the Erlenmeyer could be re-filtered.

Friday, September 27, 2019

Issues in International Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Issues in International Management - Essay Example Concerning this aspect, the framework incorporates two vital aspects i.e. global integration of the value chain activities and manufacturing of products along with processes in correspondence with the needs of the local market (Cieri & et. al., 2005). In accordance with the context of IHRM, certain prevalent issues can be apparently observed that entail cultural diversity, people management and employee relation among others (Taylor, 2007). Keeping up with these issues, this essay intends to discuss about the various structures being followed by the MNCs/MNEs in order to mitigate the global challenges associated with the applicability of the IHRM. The essay will further discuss upon the IHRM designs been adopted by MNCs and the benefits associated with the structure being framed. Apart from this, the essay will also discuss about various strategies that pursue by the MNEs for global development. According to Howard Perlmutter’s theory, three patterns of MNCs can be reflected. In this regard, ethnocentric orientation reflects about the management intentions in employing national employees rather than non-native employees. In this respect, the management has the perception that the internal employees are capable of handling operations along with the issues pertaining to the international level. One of the advantages of such orientation is that the valued position is being occupied by the talented nationals rather than the external employees. Apart from this advantage, one of the drawbacks associated with this model is that the MNEs get deprive of practicing diversified culture. Furthermore, the MNEs also get deprive of knowledge from the external source, thereby facing the challenge of international short sightedness. This might create hurdle in mitigating the required global demands (Perlmutter, 2010). One such MNC, which can be apparently observed to comply with ethn ocentric orientation in the form of practicing diversified culture, is Hong Kong

W 9 Chemicals and Pests- Discussion- environmental Essay

W 9 Chemicals and Pests- Discussion- environmental - Essay Example As for ants, we either flush them away with cold water or we wipe the ants up in a damp rug and rinse the rug in order to wash the ants down the drain. Since my mom has been growing a small pocket garden in the front of our house for a number of years now, I do not really mind the use of fertilizers in gardens and lawns since it helps to ensure a good plant growth. However, my mother uses organic fertilizers for this purpose and not chemically treated fertilizers. The only chemical that she uses on her plants is something called Malathion which, I have to admit, has a rather offensive smell once it is sprayed on the plants. I believe that fertilizers are a necessary evil in the development and aesthetic development of plant growth. Does its aesthetic benefits outweigh the negative effects? I would have to say that it does not because it directly affects my health. However, these negative effects only come into play when using artificial fertilizers. The same does not apply when using organic

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Saguaro National Park Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Saguaro National Park - Research Paper Example The Northern part of the State’s claim to fame is that of the Grand Canyon, the most recognizable Wonder of the World; the White Mountains’ sprawling ranges are peppered with vast stands of Ponderosa Pines, historic Western towns, and ski resorts. Additionally, Monument Valley, which stirs up awe in anyone who crosses it, has appeared in several films; and boating enthusiasts from different parts of the State frequent Arizona’s Lake Powell (Joyce, 2). Moreover, of great significance is Saguaro National Park, formerly Saguaro National Monument, which is the focus of this paper. History of Saguaro National Park Saguaro National Parkis made of 91,327 acres and is made up of two separate sections namely the Rincon Mountain District (Saguaro East) and the Tucson Mountain District (Saguaro West) (Shannontech.com, 1). The significance of this national park lies in the rich Sonoran Desert’s diversity life found within a framework of prehistoric and historic human occupation (Colostate.edu, 13). Historically, Saguaro has evidently had human habitation for as long as twelve thousand years ago. During that time, the region was much wetter as opposed to the way it presently is. It supported habitation by such animals as the bison, mammoth, among other mammals. The Hohokam people settled in Saguaro roughly 2300 years ago and they had learned to carry out agriculture by 700 AD. For many centuries, these people thrived in the Santa Cruz Valley (where Tucson is presently situated) but in the fifteenth century, they vanished (Shannontech.com, 3). Saguaro national park became a national monument in the year 1933 following a presidential proclamation by Herbert Hoover. It became the first monument reserved to protect a plant species. In 1959, there was need for extra effort to prevent people from exploring the opening part of the park's area for copper. Towards the end of the year 1961, President Kennedy signed a bill that expanded the monument by adding Tucson Mountain district’s 15,360 acres to the monument. Later, twenty-one thousand more acres were added to this district. In October 1994, following a bill signed by President Bill Clinton, Saguaro National Park was established as the United States’ 52nd national park (Shannontech.com, 6 & Uhler, 1). Plants Although Saguaro National Park is situated within a desert, there is a profusion of life. The park has magnificent examples of Sonoran Desert ecosystem that include various desert plants, as well as the renowned saguaro cactus, an American Southwest symbol (Shannontech.com, 1). Braun explains that plants foun d in this park vary from desert vegetation such as cacti, creosote and ocotillo in the lower elevations to Douglas-fir oak, and ponderosa pine in Rincon Mountains’ upper elevations (10). Plants that grow in Saguaro National Park are adapted to drought in such a way that they go dormant to conserve their water in periods of long dry seasons. Many plants seem lifeless during these periods but they are capable of coming to life budding new green leaves soon after a rainfall. For instance, a plant called ocotillo transforms from what was seemingly a handful of lifeless sticks into a sunny shrub with its branches tall and green within only forty-eight hours following a rainfall (Nps.gov, 1). Uhler explains that the saguaro cactus has been portrayed as the king of the Sonoran Desert, as a plant with personality, as the supreme symbol of the American Southwest, and as a prickly horror. It is famous for the variety of odd, with the shapes that it assumes inspiring fanciful and wild i maginings and some assuming all too human shapes. At times, giant saguaro cacti attain a height of 50 feet. These plants are unique to the Sonoran Desert.

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

E-Marketing Industry Report (Emirates Airlines) Research Paper

E-Marketing Industry Report (Emirates Airlines) - Research Paper Example (The Emirates Group 2013-2014). The company has utilized the media in the most effective manner and their e-marketing strategy is undoubtedly very efficient (Oxford Business Group 2008). However, there needs to be few amendments in its  strategy that will help in improving the company’s overall operations online (Graham, Papatheodorou and Forsyth 2010). The e-marketing strategy of Emirates Airline is discussed below in this report. The Internet is considered as one of the fundamentals of marketing and advertising. Due to its vast reach and effectiveness, it is now a dynamic source for the consumers of every industry. Since the twenty-first century has opened new doors of technology and communication for almost every corporate sector, therefore, the airline industry have also utilized the medium in an effective manner. The airline industry is utilizing the internet for online reservations, promotions, advertisements, marketing, etc. through websites, social media, mobile apps, and various other e-marketing tools. This report will analyze the e-marketing strategies and online presence of Emirates Airlines. Furthermore, the report will discuss how the corporation has utilized e-marketing for improving its performance. Suggestions and conclusions are also included in the paper. Online analysis or Web analysis is an assessment or measurement /gathering of web data for the purpose of comprehending and optimizing the web page (Kaushik 2009). The online analysis helps organizations to revise their e-marketing strategy as per the market and their research (Graham, Papatheodorou and Forsyth 2010). It allows assessing the effectiveness of the website of a business and how influential their advertising and marketing techniques are (Lurie 2014). There are numerous websites through which other websites can be assessed and analyzed (Hitt, Ireland and Hoskisson 2014). The web analysis and e-marketing / online assessment of

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Critically discuss how knowledge of the chronic radiation induced long Essay - 1

Critically discuss how knowledge of the chronic radiation induced long term side effects have impacted on current treatment practices - Essay Example Wallace and Lorrie (2002) observe that fatigue is the most common and severe of all side effects of radiotherapy. Side effects caused because of radiotherapy are so dangerous that some result in serious permanent disabilities, death, or even some short-term side effects to the cancer infected patients who are undergoing radiation. Patients can evade this menace if doctors or radiologists take careful precautions. However, these prevention methods depend on the type of cancer that one is suffering from. It is worth noting that the intensity of side effects of radiotherapy treatment depends on which target tissues the treatment is being directed. The side effects may be minimal according to the type of tissue receiving the treatment. This paper explores the techniques of treating cancer, their side effects and the modifications in place to reduce the impacts on patients in future. The research paper will focus on fatigue, as the most serious side effect in treatment of cancer. Fatigue is the most serious side effect caused by radiotherapy. It is common among patients suffering from cancer, undergoing radiotherapy. This is an observation made by Wallace and Lorrie (2002) in their research. Fatigue has, among many, the following symptoms: loss of energy, being weak, problem of thoughts and being too moody. Fatigue comes because of the following techniques of radiotherapy during prostate cancer treatment. During radiotherapy, most of the cells usually die. This causes destruction of blood vessels around the tumors. This interferes with transport of blood into the tissues. Inadequate oxygen in cells lowers rate of respiration hence low energy quantities in the body. Discussed below are improved radiotherapy techniqu es, aimed to reduce the said fatigue. 3D conformal radiotherapy uses computer technology and radioisotope to concentrate the high radiation dose to the tumors while deterring the

Monday, September 23, 2019

SCIENTIST SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO CLONE PEOPLE Research Paper

SCIENTIST SHOULD BE ALLOWED TO CLONE PEOPLE - Research Paper Example By looking at the potential of human cloning, certain aspects of human society such as the ones determining how human cloning affect scientific research by drastically increasing scientific knowledge of genetics. Heimbach asserts that cloning presents many challenges affecting the subjects such as the potential physical dangers and the profound ethical dilemmas that should be avoided (633). The prospect of cloning humans is highly controversial as many scientists and lawmakers view the act as immoral. There are risks and technical challenges and other laws that make it illegal thus denying the chance of human cloning becoming a reality. People opposing cloning of humans argue that cloning animals may be to humans advantage because it would boost human research however, what is good for animals may not actually be good for humans. Interestingly, animals do not even have an idea or sense of how much we appreciate their sacrifices hence making arguments against cloning to be similar since the initiation of the topic (Surfcrs Web). The people against human cloning assert that the act will destabilize human condition by disrupting faith in the sanctity of life and the superior position humans hol d over other species and therefore any little insult may degrade the human ego. Many clones die during gestation or soon after birth because of placental malfunction is a major cause of death or the surviving ones plagued with serious physiological and generic problems. Such kind of conditions such as the large offspring syndrome and severe respiratory and brain malformations are common among animals leaving a question whether clones can develop and age normally when it comes to humans. Heimbach argues that scientific and technical issues regarding human cloning should therefore be clarified before undertaking the act to avoid eminent failures such as stillbirths and the birth of deformed babies (655). Some of the ethical issues concerning cloning is the use of

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Learning Disabilities Essay Example for Free

Learning Disabilities Essay Puzzling is the term teachers use to describe students with learning disabilities.   They tell us that these students look entirely normal, seem intelligent, carry on intelligent conversations – that they don’t appear to any different than other students. Yet these students have difficulty doing certain tasks – not all- in school.   Some have difficulty reading; others perform poorly in spelling; still others make frequent mistakes in math.   Teachers in many schools tell us that these students are very hard to teach – that they simply do not learn in the same ways or as easily as others their age.    They tell us that these students have special needs and are not easy to teach in large classes in which most other students perform reasonably well.   They tell us that modifying instruction so that these students can profit from teaching is an intricate process. Because of the heterogeneous nature of this group of children, the concept of specific learning disabilities has been hard to define or describe in few sentence or by a numerical score such as an IQ or by a decibel loss. Furthermore, because the field has been of interest to educators, psychologists, psychiatrists, neurophysiologists, pediatricians, ophthalmologists, optometrists, speech pathologists, and others, the problem has been viewed in each of those disciplines from different perspectives. Hence there is really the need for several definitions for learning disabilities and thus we can conclude that its definition is defined in â€Å"case to case† basis. Definition of Learning Disabilities Historically, the following terms were used to name children with Learning disabilities: ââ€"   perceptually handicapped ââ€"   brain injured ââ€"   neurologically impaired Then, there came two broad aspects of concern in defining and or identifying those children: biological etiology- â€Å"minimal brain dysfunction†, psychoneurological learning disorders. behavior – â€Å" developmental disparity in psychological processes†, developmental imbalance† The definition of learning disabilities in an educational term has derived its heritage from: ââ€"   neurology ââ€"   psychology ââ€"   speech pathology ââ€"   ophthalmology ââ€"  Ã‚   remedial reading      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Wiederholt (1984) has traced the history of Learning disability and has delineated three dimensions of disorders namely: (1) disorders of the spoken language studied primarily by neurologists and ophthalmologists such as; ââ€"   Samuel Kirk developed a test, the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, for use in describing language functioning and developing remedial programs. disorders of written language represented mostly by psychologists, speech pathologists, and educators such as; ââ€"   Grace Fernald established a clinic at UCLA where she perfected remedial reading and spelling techniques. disorders of perceptual and motor behaviors studied mostly by a number of disciplines such as; ââ€"   Goldstein, Werner and Strauss as pioneers of the field which listed the following behavioral characteristics that differentiated between those with and those without brain injuries: excessive motor activity, hyperactivity, awkwardness and consistently poor motor performance, erratic behavior, poor organization, high distractibility and faulty perceptions (like reversals) and ââ€"   Samuel Orton was a neurologist who believed that lack of cerebral dominance was a cause of language disorders. (In normal individual either the left or right side of the brain has dominance in controlling specific functions.) ââ€"  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cruickshank focused his efforts on the study of brain-injured children, specifically children with cerebral palsy. ââ€"   Getman, Marianne Frostig, Newell Kephart, and Ray Barsch focused on the correlation of perceptual disorders and developed remedial procedures ranging from optometric eye exercises, tracing and copying patterns, and differentiating figure from background in a puzzle, to making angels in the snow.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Today, there are various provinces in Canada that have established programs for learning disabilities which was instituted for example by ââ€"   The Ontario Ministry of Education ââ€"   Saskatchewan Department of Education ââ€"   Halifax Board of Education and ââ€"   Quebec Ministry of Education But the most widely used definitions is the one incorporated by the Learning Disabilities Association of Canada or LDAC (2002) which state that, the term â€Å"Learning Disabilities refer to a number of disorders which may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or nonverbal information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking and/or reasoning. As such, learning disabilities are distinct from global intellectual deficiency. Learning disabilities result from impairments in one or more processes related to perceiving, thinking, remembering or learning. These include, but are not limited to: language processing; phonological processing; visual spatial processing; processing speed; memory and attention; and executive functions (e.g. planning and decision-making)†. Further, LDAC mentioned that learning disabilities range in severity and may interfere with the acquisition and use of one or more of the following: oral language (e.g. listening, speaking, understanding); reading (e.g. decoding, phonetic knowledge, word recognition, comprehension); written language (e.g. spelling and written expression); and mathematics (e.g. computation, problem solving). Further, the U.S. Department of Education regulation further states that a student has a specific learning disability if: the student does not achieve at the proper age and ability levels in one or more of several specific areas when provided with appropriate learning experiences; the student has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in one or more of these seven areas: (a) oral expression, (b) listening comprehension, (c) written expression, (d) basic reading skill, (e) reading comprehension, (f) mathematics calculation, and (g) mathematics reasoning. To summarize, all these definitions of learning disabilities, it includes the following major concepts: The individual has a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes.   Ã‚  Ã‚   (These processes refer to intrinsic prerequisite abilities, such as memory, auditory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   perception, visual perception, oral language, and thinking.) The individual has difficulty in learning, specifically, in speaking, listening, writing, reading (word-recognition skills and comprehension), and mathematics (calculation and reasoning.) The problem is not primarily due to other causes, such as visual or hearing impairments; motor handicaps; mental retardation; emotional disturbance; or economic, environmental, or cultural disadvantage. A severe discrepancy exists between the student’s apparent potential for learning and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   his or her low level of achievement.   In other words, there is evidence of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   underachievement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The various definitions of learning disabilities have several elements in common: neurological dysfunction uneven growth pattern difficulty in academic and learning tasks discrepancy between potential and achievement exclusion of other causes Identification of Learning Disabilities In identifying individuals with learning disabilities, the following common characteristics must be observed: ââ€"   Disorders of attention: Hyperactivity, distractibility, poor concentration ability, short attention span; ââ€"   Poor motor abilities: Poor fine and gross motor coordination, general awkwardness and clumsiness, spatial problems; ââ€"   Perceptual and information processing problems: Difficulty in discrimination of auditory and visual stimuli, auditory and visual closure, and sequencing; ââ€"   Oral language difficulties: Problems in listening, speaking, vocabulary, and linguistic competencies; ââ€"   Failure to develop and mobilize cognitive strategies for learning: Lack of organization, active learning set, metacognitive functions; ââ€"   Reading difficulties: Problems in decoding, basic reading skills, and reading comprehension; ââ€"   Written language difficulties: Problems in spelling, handwriting, and written composition; ââ€"   Mathematics difficulties: Difficulty in quantitative thinking, arithmetic, time, space, and calculation facts; and ââ€"   Inappropriate social behavior: Problems in social skills deficits, emotional problems, and establishing social relationships. There are also other practical classification schemes that are useful: (1) the academic learning disabilities ( reading, arithmetic, handwriting, spelling, and written expression) (2) the developmental learning disabilities: ( attention, memory, perceptual skills, thinking skills, and oral language skills) A somewhat more systematic way to look at characteristics of students with learning disabilities is to look at those factors referenced in screening devices.   The following outline reflects the types of difficulties often observed in learning disabled students: (1) significantly different classroom behaviors difficulty in beginning or finishing tasks difficulty in organizing inconsistent in behavior difficulty in peer relationships (2) significantly below-average performance in auditory comprehension and listening difficulty in following directions difficulty in comprehending or following class discussions inability to retain information received aurally difficulty in understanding or comprehending word meanings (3) significantly below-average performance in spoken language use of incomplete sentences or unusual number of grammatical errors use of immature or improper vocabulary or very limited vocabulary difficulty in recalling words for use in self-expression difficulty relating isolated facts, scattered ideas difficulty in relating ideas in logical sequence (4) significant academic problems difficulty in reading fluency difficulty in associating numbers with symbols incorrect ordering of letters in spelling confusion of manuscript and cursive writing avoidance of reading confusion of math concepts – addition, multiplication (5) orientation difficulties poor time concept, no grasp of meaning of time difficulty in â€Å"navigating† around building or school grounds poor understanding of relationships (big, little, far, close, under, on, near) inability to learn directions (north, south, left, right) motor disabilities or significant underdevelopment for age poor coordination very poor balance awkward, poorly developed manipulative or manual dexterity lack of rhythm in movements III. Intervention for Learning Disabilities. This knowledge of the characteristics of learning disabled students is one basis for intervention. Thus, we have seen that children with learning disabilities compose quite a diverse group.   It should be no surprise then to find that the teaching and strategies approaches designed to help those children are also quite a diverse. But it is possible to cluster the various approaches into three broad educational strategies: task training, in which the emphasis is on the sequencing and simplication of the task to be learned. ââ€"   Ysseldyke and Salvia (1984) have advanced tow theoretical models namely: (a) analyzing the child’s abilities and disabilities and (b) analyzing the task and the direct training of the terminal behavior or task. This view is supported by behavioral analysts who advocate (1) finding out what the child can and cannot do in a particular skill, (2) determining whether or not the child has the behaviors needed to succeed in the task, (3) defining the goals in observable terms, and (4) organizing a systemic remedial program using reinforcement techniques. The applied behavior analysts do not infer processes or abilities that underlie difficulties but rely solely on the child’s interactional history and the current behavior and environmental situation.   They feel that their approach, which is task oriented and observable, is the most parsimonious approach, and to some it is the only approach needed. ability or process training, in which the focus is on the remediation and simplification of the task to be learned. Quay (1983) discussed the relative efficacy of ability or process training.   He stated that three approaches to remediation have evolved: (1) remediating a disability so that learning will be facilitated at a later date, (2) training and ability or process for its own sake, and (3) direct training of the task.   He concludes that the direct instruction method (task training) should be tried first and then discarded in favor of other methods if direct instruction is not successful. ability – or process-task training, in which the first two approaches are combined and integrated into one remedial program. Raschke and Young (1986) support this approach.   They compared the behavior – analysis model with the diagnostic-prescriptive model. They state that neither approach alone has the answer and propose what they call a dialectic-teaching approach into one system. Essentially the model assesses the abilities and disabilities of the children (intraindividual diffences), makes task analyses of the skills to be learned, and prescribes remediation in the functions and skills to be developed. This dialectic system they maintain â€Å"permits the teacher to assess, program, instruct, and evaluate the child’s psycholinguistic characteristics in the same system as his skill competencies and consequential variables†. Hence, the task of developing a definition of learning disabilities proved to be a formidable challenge.   Indeed, defining this population is considered such an overwhelming task that some have likened learning disabilities to Justice Potter Stewart’s comment on pornography: impossible to define, â€Å"but I know it when I see it.† Thus, defining learning disabilities in a way acceptable to all has continued as a debatable issue since the inception of the field.   Although a number of definitions have been generated and used over the years, each has been judged by some to have some shortcomings.  Ã‚   There are many types of disabilities, each of which may require a unique diagnosis and a unique remedial method. POSITION PAPER   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The definitions of learning disabilities are numerous and so varied that it is difficult to present taxonomy or even a specific list of these different definitions.   The definition of learning disabilities is a problem in much of the nations throughout the world. This problem first came out when some parents in the United States became concerned because their children who were not learning in school were rejected from special education since they were not mentally retarded, deaf or blind, or otherwise handicapped.   Their children were called by various names such as; neurologically handicapped, brain-injured, aphasodic, dyslexic, and perceptually handicapped. In spite of its current widespread use, the term learning disability is vulnerable to misunderstanding and misuse. The condition is difficult to define operationally since the designation learning disability is an umbrella term for a variety of deviations that are not included in traditional categories of exceptional children. Also it has been confused with general learning problems that are common to some degree in most children. In addition, it has been misused to include educational retardation, which is found in slow learning children and in children who have not learned because of poor teaching or absence from school. Another vulnerability of the term comes from the difficulty in drawing an explicit line between normal and abnormal.   Some allowances must be made for biological and psychological diversity, and considerable variation in abilities is accepted as normal. So, the question now is, â€Å"If there are objections to the term learning disabilities, why use it?   Why not use some other term? Well and good, if a better term can be found.   Other terms are either too specific or too broad.   Dyslexia for example, only refers to severe reading disability and it is not the only learning disability.   Brain injury has little or no educational relevance.   Perceptual handicaps exclude children with language disorders. Hence, the label learning disability has evolved to encompass the heterogeneous group of children not fitting neatly into the traditional categories of handicapped children. And that, substantial number of children show retardation in learning to talk, do not acquire other communication skill, do not develop normal visual or auditory perception, or great difficulty in learning to read, to spell, to write, or to make arithmetic calculations. Some of them even, are not receptive to language but are not deaf, some are not able to perceive visually but are not blind, and some cannot learn by ordinary of method of instruction but are not mentally retarded. Although such children are from a heterogeneous group and fail to learn for diverse reasons, they have one thing in common: they do not perform as well in school as they could. Discussing the problem and the difficulties of names for these children, Kirk (1963) explained that sometimes classification labels block our thinking. He further stated that it is better to state that a child has not learned to read than to say the child is dyslexic. So he advised that the name should be functional.   He suggested further that since the parents were interested in service to their children, it might be preferable to use a term related to teaching or learning and that the term learning disability might be preferable over the currently used terms such as cerebral function and brain injured. The term learning disabilities were agreed by these parents and they consider it more appropriate since it implied teaching and learning and since they were interested primarily in service for their children. So, one of the major problems of definition is that a learning disability is not as obvious or homogenous as blindness or deafness. There are many types of disabilities, each of which may require a unique diagnosis and a remedial method may vary differently from another condition also termed a learning disability. It is no wonder that many students, teachers, and parents have become confused about the term learning disability and the characteristics of children so labeled. This confusion appears to be international and is illustrated by the remarks of a teacher who, in testifying to a government committee studying the subject (Learning Difficulties in Children and Adults, 1986), stated:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I find myself asking the following questions:   What does the term â€Å"learning difficulty† mean?   Does the term â€Å"learning difficulty† mean the same as â€Å"learning disability†? How about the term â€Å"dysfunction†? What does the term â€Å"minimal brain dysfunction† mean? Do they all mean the same? Certainly, all these labels are not necessary, or are they? Does labeling a child with learning problems create more problems? It all becomes a bit confusing†¦The terminology changes often, varies from state to state and from country to country. Out of these definitions, came my own definition of learning disability: Learning disability describes a result rather than the cause of the learning disability.   Therefore, the conditions we call a learning disability is defined in terms of the student’s difficulties – what he can and cannot do in school – and focuses primarily on the academic performance.   So, one cannot be labeled as learning disabled if he has not yet started formal schooling as the label learning disabled indicates that a student is having unusual learning difficulties and involves speculations to possible causes, but it specifically indicates that the primary cause cannot be a condition such as mental retardation, hearing or visual impairment, and so on. Learning disabilities should be identified in the formal school context. Thus, preschoolers should not be labeled as learning disabled as growth rates are so unpredictable at young age,   In addition, very young children who appear to have problems may be identified under a noncategorical label, such as developmentally delayed.   For many children, learning disabilities first become apparent when they enter school and fail to acquire academic skills.   The failure often occurs in reading, but also happens in mathematics, writing, or other school subjects.   Among the behaviors frequently seen in the early elementary years are inability to attend and concentrate; poor motor skills, as evidenced in the awkward handling of a pencil and in poor writing; and difficulty in learning to read.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the later elementary years, as the curriculum becomes more difficult, problems may emerge in other areas, such as social studies or science.   Emotional problems also become more of an impediment after several years of repeated failure, and students become more conscious of their poor achievement in comparison with that of their peers.   For some students, social problems and inability to make and keep friends increase in importance at this age level. A radical change in schooling occurs at the secondary level, and adolescents find that learning disabilities begin to take a greater toll.   The tougher demands of the junior and senior high school curriculum and teachers, the turmoil of adolescence, and the continued academic failure may combine to intensify the learning disability.   Adolescents are also concerned about life after completing school.   They may need counseling and guidance for college, career, and vocational decisions.   To worsen the situation, a few adolescents find themselves drawn into acts of juvenile delinquency.   Because adolescents tend to be overly sensitive, some emotional, social, and self-concept problems often accompany a learning disability at his age.   Most secondary schools now have programs for adolescents with learning disabilities. Many teachers in Canada suggested that we abolish the label learning disability, and merge it with the emotionally disturbed and the educable mentally retarded and only deal with the child from an instructional point of view by defining learning tasks so that they can be taught step by step.   I strongly opposed with this suggestion.   Though maybe it is possible for the child with severe learning disability, but this approach is not sufficient to mild learning disabilities students. This is one of the greatest sources of controversy about the identification issues. The question of how much academic and learning retardation is evidenced before an individual should be identified as learning disabled.   Aside from identifying children with learning disability, it is very important to judge the extent of a child’s learning disability as either mild or severe.   Determining the level of severity is helpful in placement and in planning teaching delivery.   I strongly suggest that students with mild learning disabilities should be given different remediation from those of students who have severe learning disabilities. At this point, it is very crucial to differentiate the two cases.   Mild learning disabilities describe the problems of many students.   Students with mild learning disabilities usually have a disability in just one or two areas of learning, and although they need supportive help and special teaching, they can probably get along – at least for part of the day – in the regular classroom. So, within the regular classroom, the regular teachers should often make changes in instruction that will benefit these students. On the other hand, students with sever learning disabilities pose a very different problem and they require quite different educational services.   These students are likely to lag significantly in several areas of learning and to have concomitant social, emotional, or behavioral problems.   They need the environment of a special classroom, should contact mainly with one teacher, and should be given special services for most of the day.   Because of the intensity of their problems, the special class should be given fewer students than the regular classroom.   I suggest the 1:3 teacher to student ratio is the best to maximize and hasten the remediation process.   However, students with severe learning disabilities can gradually be mainstreamed for special subjects or activities or placed in the resource room, or even back in the regular classroom as their progress permits.   Because of these definitions; teachers, guidance councilors, and other school personnel, play the biggest role in identifying, diagnosing, remediating or treating this kind of disability within the school context.   So any teaching/service delivery should best meet the requirements needed to serve properly learning disabled students within the regular classroom.   Hence, learning disabled students should be treated or given remediation within the given school context with the greatest help of the regular classroom teacher but the guidance of the learning disabilities specialist.   So, it is implied that each school should have a learning disabilities specialist. With this, a change in the administrative arrangements for the placement for instruction of children with learning disabilities is a must.  Ã‚   It is important to take note that in the past, the rapid growth of special education was in the direction of removing atypical children from the mainstream of regular classroom and placing them into special education programs. Even the regular education supported this movement which maybe because the responsibility of educating children with a variety of learning problems is transferred to the domain of special education, and that would really lighten the work load of regular teachers.  Ã‚   But that should not be the case and I do not support that movement. The trend should be reversed and all students with learning disabilities should be brought back into the regular classroom with the regular students and in the hands of the regular teacher with the help of the learning disabilities specialist.     Ã‚  A number of movements and researches support this claim. The influential movement that supports this claim is the REI or the regular education initiative led by Madeline Will, the director of special education in the U.S. Office of Special Education in 1986.   She stated that this initiative is designed to promote collaborative efforts among regular and special educators and â€Å"shared responsibility† (Will, 1986).   In this initiative, regular and special educators were encouraged to pool their talents and coordinate their efforts in planning and teaching.  Ã‚   I greatly support this initiative as the underlying premise of this concept is that student’s learning disabilities can be more successfully taught in the regular education classroom than in special education classes or resource room. By promoting the merging of special and regular education, the regular education initiative reflects a major change in the way students with learning disabilities are identified, assessed, and educated. The approach is supported by many special educators (Lloyd, Singh, Repp, 1991; Maheady Algozzine, 1991; Biklen Zollers, 1986; Greer, 1988; Reynolds, Wang Walberg, 1997).     Ã‚  A specific example is, more than fifty years ago, Samuel Kirk, in his presidential address to special educators, emphasized that all teachers (regular and special educators) have the responsibility for teaching learning disabled children.   Kirk implored that â€Å"every teacher †¦ is a teacher of learning disabled children† (Kirk, 1941).   He further wrote the following: Actually the education of exceptional children is not wholly the responsibility of any one group of teachers †¦. It is hoped that in the future all special class teachers will not only be responsible for the education of children in their classroom, but will take on the added responsibility of contributing their knowledge and special skill to the regular classroom teacher †¦ who (has0 many learning disabled children in (the) classroom. (Kirk, 1941) In 1968, Lloyd Dunn wrote an influential article about the benefits of having special educators work with regular teachers in serving learning disabled children (Dunn, 1968). Another view to change the administrative arrangement in special education is to group children with different disabilities together for instruction.   This categorical system in special education historically evolved as the field of special education developed.   Each category of disability (such as visual impairment, hearing impairment, mental retardation, orthopedic disabilities, speech disorders, emotional disturbance, and learning disabilities) became established individually over the years when there was sufficient interest in that particular area of exceptionality.   This concept emphasizes the common characteristics among students with disabilities and the common instructional methods for teaching students with various disabilities.   In this system, students with learning disabilities, behavior disorders, and mental retardation are often grouped together. Some parents and special educators are concerned that children with learning disabilities might be lost in the shuffle of this kind of placement, if such classes become a dumping ground for students with a variety of unrelated problems.   The resulting diversity of learning and behavior problems would impede teachers in helping students with learning disabilities. But this view is also opposed by a number of authors and has even provoked unusual levels of confusion, emotion, and debate within the special education community (Jehkins Pious, 2001).   Moreover, other special educators and parents, express concern regarding the regular education initiative movement and caution that more study is needed before making full-scale and far-reaching changes in procedures and policies that will affect the lives of students with learning disabilities (Lloyd et al., 1991; Journal of Learning Disabilities, 1988; Cannon, 1988; Kaufman, Gerber, Semmel, 1998; McKinney Hocutt, 1988, Lerner, 1997). But these opposing views have no substance and should be disregarded altogether.   Fuchs Fuchs (2000) have conducted research on the perceptions of and attitudes toward the regular education initiative among both regular and special educators.   These studies suggest that neither regular nor special education teachers are dissatisfied with the current special education delivery system.   In fact, the teachers favored the resource room model over the consultant model.   Many of the teachers saw no improvement in the achievement levels for either special or regular education students as a result of the regular education initiative reforms.   The success of the initiative depends on the support of regular and special teachers (Semmel, Abernathy, Butera, Lesar, 1991; Coates, 1989).   Moreover, the research prove that merely shifting the responsibility from the resource room teacher to the regular or a consultant is not enough to ensure the success of the reform. Hence, major policy changes in regular education profoundly affect students with learning disabilities.   Several recent national study commissions on the poor quality of schools serving the learning disabled students.   It is my fear that, most school’s pursuit for academic excellence standards will left behind students with learning disabilities – or they will be the losers.   Being unable to meet the educational standards set by the pursuit-of-excellence movement, some students with learning disabilities will be denied a high school diploma and thus be denied the opportunity to complete their schooling.   Further, if regular teachers are held accountable for the academic excellence of their students, they will be reluctant to accept the responsibility for hard-to-teach students.   Some special educators predict that the push for excellence may serve to widen the schism between regular and special education (Pugach Sapon-Shevin, 1997). Hence, it is my challenge to educators and healthcare professionals to undergo another education reform movement where school curriculum requirements for the learning disabled should be added to the current curriculum standards for the regular students. So in this recommendation for curriculum changes, a greater consideration should be given for the learning disabled students.   But this should be within the context of the regular education curriculum. This approach is same with the integration of regular and special education.   Some special educators also are now urging that the integration process should be taken much further – that the current special education system should be drastically restructured and that regular and special education should be merged into a single system (Kauffman Trent, 1991).   Such educators cite several reasons for changing the current system.   Special education, they maintain, is not effective when it occurs outside of the regular classroom.   In addition, the physical separation of students with disabilities is demeaning and degrades instruction.   These special educators maintain that integrated special education is more effective than separate programs. So the delivery options for teaching students with learning disabilities should also include regular classes and resource room classes.   This approach is concomitant to the observation that successful adults with disabilities have learned to function comfortably in society as it exists – an unrestricted environment composed of all people.   To promote experiences in the greater society, it must be ensured that, to the extent appropriate, students with disabilities should have experiences in school with regular (or non-special education) students. Since society includes the family, parents too should not be forgotten as an important element in the entire complex.   Parents are a vital component in the student’s education. These parents of children with learning disabilities need help in accepting their situation.   Mental health professionals should help make parents be aware that the problem must be faced both by the child and by other members of the family.   In addition to an honest acceptance of the disability, there must be recognition that improvement is often a slow process. So any approach concerning children with learning disability should establish healthy parental attitudes and ensure parent-teacher cooperation is of course, very necessary.   Parent support groups and family counseling are effective in assisting parents understand their children and their problems and in finding ways to help their children within the home.   In addition, parent-teacher conference can become a bridge between the home and school and can involve parents in the educational process. Learning disabilities is now at a crossroads, as it seems to have been throughout its thirty-year history.   Many innovative ideas are only in their beginning stages and will develop more fully in the years to come. The approach I suggested as discussed in this paper is one of those ideas.   It is very important for this approach that more students with learning disabilities are served through regular education.   In addition, there should be more collaboration between special and regular educators.   A consequence of all of these shifts is that the responsibilities of learning disabilities teachers will change to meet the new demands. References Bush, W., and Giles, M.(1979).   Aids to Psycholinguistic Teaching. Columbus,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ohio: Charles E. Merrill. Clements, S. (1986). Minimal Brain Dysfunction in Children.   Public Health   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Service Publications. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Washington, D.C. Dunn, L.M. nad Smith J.O. (1987). Peabody Language Development Kits. Levels   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   P, I.II.III. Circle Pines, Minn.: American Guidance Service. Fernald, G.M. and Keller, H. (1971), â€Å"The Effect of Kinesthetic Factors in the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Development of Word Recognition in the Case of Non –Readers.† Journal of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Educational Research 4:355-357. Getman, G.H. (1985). â€Å"The Visuo-Motor Complex in the Acquisition of Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Skills.† Learning Disorders, Volume 1. Seattle: Special Child Publications Gellingham,A. and Stillman B. (1986). Remedial Training for Children with   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Specific Disability in Reading, Spelling, and Penmanship, 5th ed. Cambridge,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mass: Educators Publishing Service. Hegge,T., Kirk,S. and Kirk, W.(1986). Remedial Reading Drills.   Ann Arbor,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mich.: Geroge Wahr. Hirsch,E. (1983). â€Å"Training of Visualizing Ability by the Kinesthetic Method of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Teaching Reading.† Unpublished master’s thesis. University of Illinois. Karnes,M., Zehrbach, R. and Teska, J. (1984). â€Å"The Karnes Preschool Program;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Rational Curricular Offerings and Follow up Data.   Report on Longitudinal   Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Evaluations of Preschool Programs, vol. 1: 95-108. Kirk, S.A. (1963).   â€Å"Behavioral Diagnosis and Remediation of Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disabilities.† In Proceedings of the Conference on Exploration into the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child.   Chicago: Perceptually   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Handicapped Children. Kirk, S.A. and Elkins, J. (1985) â€Å"Characteristics of Children Enrolled in the Child   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Service Demonstration Centers.†Ã‚   Journal of Learning Disabilities 8: 630-637. Learning Difficulties in Children and Adults. (1986). Report of the House of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Representatives Select Committee on Specific Learning Difficulties. Lombardi, T.P., and Lombardi, E.J. (1987).   ITPA: Clinical Interpretation and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Remediation. Seattle: Special Child Publication. Minskoff, E.D., Wiseman, and Minskoff J. (1985). The MWM Program for   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Developing Language Abilities. Ridgefield, N.J.: Educational Performance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Associates. Orton, S.J. (1978). â€Å"Specific Reading Disability – Strphosymbolia.† Journal of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   American Medical Association 90:1095-1099. Spalding, R.B.AND Spalding W.T. (1987). The Writing Road to Reading.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Morrow: New York. Strauss, A.A. and Lehtinen. (1987). Psychopathology and Education of the Brain-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Injured Child, vol. II. New York: Grune and Stratton. Weiderholt, J.L (1984).†Historical Perspectives on the Education of the Learning   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disabled.† In L. Mann and D.A. Sabitino, eds. The Third Review of Special   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Education.  Ã‚   Philadelphia: JSE Press.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Strategies in Theme Park Marketing Essay Example for Free

Strategies in Theme Park Marketing Essay Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong Tel: (00 852) 2766 6341; Fax: (00 852) 2362 9362; E-mail: [emailprotected] edu. hk Kevin K. F. Wong, PhD is a Senior Lecturer in Tourism and Manager of the HTM Resource Centre in the Department of Hotel and Tourism Management at the Hong Kong Polytechnic Uni- versity, Hong Kong. His major research interests focus on tourism management, tourist behaviour, tourism forecasting models and impact studies. Phoebe W. Y. Cheung is a research assistant within the Department of Hotel and Tourism. Management at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. ABSTRACT KEYWORDS: THEME PARK, THEMING, LEISURE, MOTIVATION, LIFESTYLE Theme parks aim to create the atmosphere of another world and it is essentially the theme which becomes the main part of a theme park experience. Thematic tourism has become increasingly popular where travel is motivated by an interest in a particular subject or area rather than by the more traditional motivations such as idyllic scenery and climate. The drawing power of theming is evident in the fact that it has, in recent years, become a catalyst for the growth of new destinations based mainly on thematic leisure. This study attempts to identify and describe a distinct and representative set of theme types and attributes in a theme park and examines the relationship between visitors motivation for visiting theme parks and theme preferences. Weak to mod- erately strong relationships were found between motivation for theme park visits by visitors and their demographics and lifestyle patterns. Given the fact the theme park industry is still relatively young in Asia, the  ®ndings of this study reinforce the need for Asian theme parks to focus strategically on satisfy- ing lower-level needs, such as stimulation, by developing and marketing an adventure theme comparable with Western theme parks. INTRODUCTION The theme park industry has witnessed a fairly rapid international expansion in recent years. In the US, the industry has reached maturity after 30 years of growth since the inception of Disneyland in the late 1950s, while in Europe, the industry has spread throughout Western Europe with a large concentration of attractions in Germany, France, the Benelux countries and the UK. Reports from the Economist Intelligence Unit indicate that the worldwide trend of the theme park industry is growing. 1The North American theme park industry grew at a compound rate of almost 3 per cent in attendance over the past decade while Eur- ope has become an attractive venue for corporate investment in theme park development by European consortia and large US corporations. Following Europe is Asia, which has been identi ®ed as the worlds next leading inter- national theme park market. In North Asia, Page 319 Journal of Vacation Marketing Volume 5 Number 4 Journal of Vacation Marketing Vol. 5 No. 4, 1999, pp. 319 ±332, Henry Stewart Publications, 1356-7667 at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from like Europe, the industry has experienced a rapid growth phase spurred on by strong demand, a growth which is expected to continue over the next ten years. 2The num- ber of theme parks has been growing in the Asian region. Since 1991, for example, there have been major theme parks developed in Shengzhen, China, such as the China Folk Culture Villages, Splendid China and the Window of the World. In Singapore, the Haw Par Villa Dragon World and Tang Dynasty Village were opened in 1991, in addition to its existing Sentosa Island which features several theme parks. In terms of visitor attendance, Hong Kongs premier theme park, Ocean Park, attracted an annual attendance of 4. 1 million in 1996, a growth rate of 22 per cent over the previous year. 3 This suggests that the industrys potential is enormous in Asia and at the same time implies that theme park developers are facing increasingly keen competition. However, despite the performance of the industry and the tourism earnings contributed by its strong growth, there is still a lack of informa- tion available on theme parks performance, positioning and development in Asia. 4 Theming and theme parks A theme park is `an amusement park that has themed attractions, be it food, costumes, entertainment, retail stores and/or rides ac-cording to the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA). Theme parks are distinguished from other amusement parks in that there is a theme that runs through all or most of their attractions. These attractions might be marketed under one general idea or personality, or they could comprise a cluster of different themes at one central location. 5 The theme, therefore, becomes the main part of the theme park experience. Even though theme parks were usually thought of as having a major theme, most of them in fact contain multi-themes in terms of differ- ent themed areas. Some park managers use themes to increase attendance over a period of time, say, during festivals or special events. However, even though the term `theme may sometimes be unclear, by reference to the de ®nition used by the IAAPA, the themes identi ®ed in this study may be thought of as: (i) the main theme which runs through all or most of the attractions, such as the movie theme of the Warner Brothers Movie World; (ii) the sub-themes which are found in a park in the form of different themed areas like the Frontierland, Adven- tureland, Fantasyland, Discoveryland and the Main Street USA of Disneys Magic King- dom; and (iii) the transitional themes, that is, themes that are created for special events which only last for a certain period of time to boost attendance. Some examples are the Far West Festival and Space Festival as seen in Disneyland Paris in 1994 and 1995 respec- tively. Theme parks are becoming increas- ingly attractive to the tourist who has limited vacation time, as by their very nature, they provide a condensed holiday product. 6A good example is Disneys new `Animal Kingdom in Florida which replicates a safari park in East Africa. Theme parks aim to create the atmosphere of another world7and it is essentially the theme itself that creates such an atmosphere. A theme represents a story line or framework which highlights a particular attraction at a destination. 8It at- tempts to tell a story and through this story the visitor is transported to another place and a unique experience is created. However, since theme parks are still a relatively new concept in tourist attractions,9there is a paucity of literature on success and failure of theme parks around the world. Past studies have focused primarily on theme park selection,10 visitor behaviour,11 visitor seg- mentation12 etc but not on the intrinsic value of the theme park ? the theme itself. Competitive theming Recent years have seen the emergence of many themes, only limited by imagination. For example, there have been themes that were based on the success of a product, such as Legoland in Denmark, and others that were built on the mythology of a culture like the Haw Par Villa Dragon World in Singa- pore. The more successful parks have been Page 320 Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from able to use the theme to create a competitive advantage over the others. Theming promotes the creation of a whole new atmosphere based on the unique experience that a theme park offers. For instance, in all the Disney properties, there is a fantasy element that allows guests to escape the urban setting and go to places they dream about. 13 Thematic tourism, in fact, represents tourism with a relatively narrow focus, where trips are motivated by an interest in a particular subject or area rather than the more traditional motivations such as the lure of idyllic scenery and pleasant climate. More importantly, theming in some ways is di- vorced from the idea of place, relegating the consideration of location to being the back- ground for a theme, rather than being the primary motivating factor. 14. There are a number of advantages in theming. First of all, theming is important for creating an initial perception of quality. 15 Secondly, themes are means to be used to help boost attendance. For example, `themed discount programmes are created to aim at certain market segments. 16 They are likely to encourage repeat visitation, as a themed environment provides a unique, memorable experience which increases the probability that guests will return. Visitors will tell friends about their visits, provid- ing effective word-of-mouth advertising. 17 Thirdly, theming is a value-adding factor. The themed retail park `Knotts Camp. Snoopy demonstrated that `the mall with a themed entertainment experience will be superior to the mall without such oppor- tunity. 18 Fourthly, theming allows coordina- tion of retail merchandise, which can in turn increase the guests retail expenditure. 19 Fi- nally, theme parks that use an easily recogni- sable and interesting theme will have a competitive advantage over those which do not. 20 This is especially so when there is very strong competition and the equipment is very similar ? the way to differentiate is by theming. 21 In addition, as the industry ma- tures and visitors become more experienced and discerning, theming may be needed for a more sophisticated market. The power of theming or thematic tour- ism is evident in the fact that it has, in recent years, become a catalyst for the growth of new destinations based solely on thematic leisure. 22 Theme park developers have con- verted existing attractions into theme parks. To be more competitive and recover the loss of market share or pro ®t, developers have to diversify their `product offering. For exam- ple, there has been the growth in demand for attractions with a space theme. There- fore, knowing what themes guests look for is essential to both potential and existing theme park investors. New types of theme parks are being developed around the world which shift their focus away from the conventional features of a `Disneyland type attraction and further differentiate themselves. This is evi- denced a plan to develop a theme park at the site of the 1969 Woodstock music festival to recreate its counter-culture spirit and an- other based on crocodiles in Florida, named `Jungle Crocs of the World. 23 Purpose of study The purpose of the study is to examine the importance of the theme in the marketing of theme parks. Since the theme is an important factor affecting the choice of theme parks by visitors, it is important to ascertain more accurately what visitors preferences are in terms of themes and how their demographic characteristics and lifestyle in? uence such preference. More speci ®cally, this study seeks to identify and describe a distinct but representative set of theme types and attri- butes in a theme park; to  ®nd out the theme preference(s) of the theme park visitors; to examine the relationship between theme park visitors motivation (purpose of visit), demographics, psychographics (lifestyle) and their preference(s) for themes; and to exam- ine the importance of theming in the mar- keting of theme parks. Motivation for visiting theme parks Pearce and Dermotts leisure ladder provides a motivation framework to explain why people visit theme parks. 24 Five levels of need regarding theme park visitation are Page 321 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from identi ®ed, with the highest level of need being listed as ful ®lment, followed by the need for self-esteem and development. The next level is relationship, which emphasises the need to build and extend ones personal relationships. This is followed by the need for stimulation. People in this group are concerned with the management of their arousal levels with emphasis on fun and thrill rides. The lowest level is that of relaxation or bodily needs (see Appendix). Apart from understanding the basic moti- vation for theme park visitation, it is neces- sary to  ®nd out why one theme park is chosen over another. The theme here plays a role in differentiating the more successful parks from the less successful ones. It has a twofold signi ®cance. First, the nature of the theme chosen will have an impact on the type of customers attracted to the park. Some themes may have a broad and general appeal which caters to a wide spectrum of visitors while others may be more focused and have a narrower appeal. Secondly, them- ing allows the creation of an enhanced atmo- sphere and guest experience. These effects, in fact, create the appropriately desirable image crucial to services marketing. Service marketing The theme park industry is part of the service component of the tourism industry. Owing to the intangible nature of services, the creation of an identi ®able image is critical for service marketing. Even though the image and the theme are not identical in nature, the theme helps project an image by the sort of theme chosen and the them- ing. For example, the fantasy theme of Disneyland helps project its image of de- light, fun and fantasy. Further, the extensive theming of Disney gives a perception of high quality. The decision made by a consumer to purchase a product or service is directly in- ?uenced by the image the individual has of himself/herself and the perceived image of the product or seller. This may explain the psychological process involved when a visi- tor chooses to go to a theme park with a particular theme, say, an adventure theme; he views himself as adventurous. It can be postulated that the psychographics of consu- mers help predict the sort of theme they prefer. Moreover, the service nature of theme parks make image creation a dif ®cult task as it is intrinsically abstract. Thus, service mar- keters may be able to build the image of speci ®c reality and differentiate it from other `realities by the presentation of tangible evidences and experiences simulating reality. By promoting a theme, customers can then use these created physical facilities and props to judge service quality. For example, them- ing is often done with the careful choice of types of architecture, costumes and other settings displayed in the park. Theme preference In a study by McClung it was found that the type of theme is one of the factors affecting tourists preference for theme parks. 25 Results also indicate that there is a correlation be- tween themes and attractions so that consid- erable multi-segmentation strategies can be devised to cater to different market seg- ments. For example, wet and wild themes correlate highly with family attractions. This type of theme can be used to attract younger people and families with children looking for thrills and excitement. Moreover, research has revealed that inter- national tourists with different cultural backgrounds exhibit distinct patterns of preference when they travel. Caucasians were found to be different from Asian visitors in terms of preference for theme park attributes concerning the nature of the attraction, activ- ities and themes. 26 Furthermore, the impor- tance of the cultural element in planning and designing theme parks has been emphasised by Gorder, who stressed the need to seek an appropriate philosophy of concept that re- ?ected Eastern thought and traditions for a park located in the Orient. 27 These important differences point to the need for more theme park studies to provide data for theme park developers catering to international tourists from diverse cultural backgrounds. Page 322. Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from METHODOLOGY Theme types and attributes A detailed review of tourism and theme park literature and promotion brochures was con- ducted to  ®nd out the theme attributes of theme parks. Words used to describe the theme or general atmosphere associated with the theme parks that appeared more than once were recorded. A list of descriptions was generated by a review of promotional literature, and was expanded by conducting interviews with  ®ve experienced theme park professionals who were asked to list all the theme types used by theme parks around the world based on their experience and know- ledge. Speci ®c theme attributes were derived and content analysis was used to sort out the adjectives used. Obvious duplication and overgeneralised descriptors were eliminated and a list of 75 attributes was compiled. As the list contained many descriptors that were similar to each other, the latter were reduced to a smaller number and regrouped into attributes that were more likely to re- present one single theme. Content analysis was to distinguish different theme types and, after regrouping, the resulting attributes were classi ®ed into seven main ones. These theme types were then shown to the  ®ve volunteers who had past experience in theme park settings to obtain further feed- back for  ®nalising the grouping of theme types. Table 1 shows the  ®nal grouping into seven theme types used in this study. Motivation for theme park visitation To ascertain the motivation for theme park visiting, ten statements were constructed, based on Pearce and Dermotts leisure ladder for theme park settings, each stating visitors different reasons for visiting to theme parks. Table 1: Theme types grouping Type Attribute Type Attribute Adventure Excitement and action Fantasy Animation. Frightening Cartoon characters Mysterious Childhood enchantment Thrill rides Childrens play park Futurism Advances in society and technology Fairy tale Magic Discovery Make believe Exploration of science and technology History and culture Myths and legends Aboriginal Laser Authentic Robot Cultural heritage Scienti ®c Ethnic appeals Science  ®ction Gold Rush International Flavours of the world Historic ambience International village Movie American Wild West show Miniature replicas Comedy Scenic spots Motion picture World expositions Show business Nature Animals Stunt show Floral displays Horticultural gardens Landscaping. Marine life Natural wonders Ocean Wildlife Page 323 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from These were in the form of questions which represented the  ®ve levels of the leisure ladder model as shown in the Appendix. Psychographic (lifestyle) Twelve statements pertaining to the person- ality, behaviour and interests of the respon- dents, such as I am a dreamer and like to fantasise; I am adventurous and look for excite- ment in life etc, were developed to investigate their preferences for particular themes. These statements were developed based on past literature and comments from a group of  ®ve volunteers. Demographic variables Demographic variables such as gender, country of origin, age, life cycle, occupation and post, household income and education level were selected to test whether any of them had a relationship with visitors theme preferences. Data collection An undisguised structured questionnaire was designed to  ®nd out information pertaining to visitors demographics, psychographics and their preferences for themes. It consisted of  ®ve sections, with the  ®rst section consist- ing of questions relating to general travel behaviour, such as frequency of travel and number of theme parks visited. In the second section, respondents were asked to indicate the degree of importance of each of the seven themes, with 1 being very unimpor- tant and 5 being very important. Following this, they were asked to rank their prefer- ences for these themes, with 1 being the most preferred and 7 the least preferred, as an indication of their ordinal partiality. The third section of the questionnaire, which sought to reveal the respondents lifestyle patterns (attitude, interest, behaviour) was achieved by seeking their level of agreement with a series of statements which related to these aspects on a scale which ranged from 1 to 5, with 1 indicating strong disagreement and 5 indicating strong agreement. The fourth section focused on the motivation for theme park visitation. Respondents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with ten statements which related to the  ®ve levels of Pearce and Dermotts leisure ladder model for theme park settings. The  ®nal section gathered general demographic data on respondents gender, country of origin, age, marital status, occupation, household income and education level. The survey questionnaire was pre-tested on a small group of ten volunteers to ascer-tain the validity, clarity and appropriateness of the questions asked, particularly in the sections pertaining to motivation and life- style patterns. Based on the comments re- ceived, some rewording was considered and the layout of the questionnaire restructured. The sample in this study were Asians (not necessarily international tourists) in Hong Kong who had visited a theme park before and those who had not visited one but ex- pressed an intention to visit. The survey was conducted in a popular tourist shopping area in Kowloon, Hong Kong on a weekend to obtain a good cross-section of people. Re-spondents were randomly intercepted and requested to complete the survey question- naire. Interviewers were instructed to clarify to respondents the de ®nition of a theme park where necessary and give examples. FINDINGS Demographic pro ®le of respondents The basic pro ®le of respondents showed a mix of men (44 per cent) and women (56 per cent) across all age and income categories. The majority (52 per cent) of them were between 25 and 39 years of age and single. In terms of income group, slightly more than one-third reported middle to upper middle class incomes. This may be explained by the fact that 44 per cent of the respondents were white-collar workers and 39 per cent re- ported having attained a secondary education level. In terms of respondents nationality, most of them were from Hong Kong, with the rest originating from the Philippines, China, Korea, India, Japan and Singapore. Page 324 Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from Visitation pattern Of the 105 respondents who provided usable data for this study, 95. 2 per cent have been to a theme park before while 4. 8 per cent have not. About one-third (32 per cent) of the respondents may be considered as non-frequent theme park visitors as they visited theme parks only once every two to four years. Another 30 per cent visited theme parks once a year whereas 22 per cent visited three times or more a year and once every six months. In terms of the number of theme parks they had visited, the majority of the respondents (46 per cent) had been to be- tween one and two different theme parks while 33 per cent of them had visited be- tween three and  ®ve theme parks. About 12 per cent had been to six to nine parks whereas only 9 per cent had been to ten or more different ones. The pattern of visitation may be attributed to the fact that there is a relatively small number of theme parks exist- ing in Asia. Ocean Park in Hong Kong was found to be the most visited park by those respondents who had been to theme parks before (97 per cent) followed by Disneys Magic Kingdom (30 per cent). Table 2 shows the list of theme parks visited by the respondents. Theme preference of respondents Seven theme types were examined to deter- mine which theme was most preferred by respondents. The nature theme (66. 7 per cent) was most frequently ranked among the higher ranks (ranks 1 ±3), followed by the fantasy theme (46. 7%) and adventure theme (44. 8%). Futurism (44. 7%), history and cul-ture (37. 1%), and international (32. 4%) themes came fourth,  ®fth and sixth respec- tively. The least preferred theme was the movie theme with only 27. 7% of respondents ranking in the top three ranks (see Table 3). To some extent the overwhelming prefer- ence for the nature theme may be explained by the limited theme park experience of some respondents. Ocean Park, an oceanarium (nature) type of park, was found to be the most visited park (97%) and almost half of these respondents have only visited one or two different parks. Thach and Axinn noted that consumers with a greater depth of ex- perience in one park only may be more likely to use the park they are familiar with as the standard for the industry and their expecta- tions of other parks are shaped by this limited knowledge. 28 Hence, the preference for the nature theme may very likely be a re? ection of the in-depth experience obtained at Ocean Park as 70 per cent of the companys guests were in fact on a repeat visit. On the other hand, the movie theme, a popular theme found in the West with the success of Universal Studios and Warner Brothers Movie World, was the least pre- ferred theme. This points to the need for the consideration of cultural in? uence on theme Table 2: Major theme parks visited by respondents Theme Park % Ocean Park 97 Disneys Magic Kingdom 30 Sung Dynasty Village 29 China Folk and Culture Village 29 Splendid China 24 Sentosa Island 17 The Window of the World 16 Haw Par Villa Dragon World 15 Warner Bros Movie World 11 Jurong Bird Park 10 Lotte World 10 Sea World 9 Dream World 8 Universal Studios 6 (n ? 100) Table 3: Theme preferences of respondents by frequency of higher ranking Theme % Rank Nature 66. 7 1 Fantasy 46. 7 2 Adventure 44. 8 3 Futurism 44. 7 4 History and culture 37. 1 5 International 32. 4 6 Movie 27. 7 7 Page 325 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from preferences. Another interpretation may be that as the breadth of experience in terms of the number of different parks visited was limited, the respondents in this study did not have much exposure to the movie theme. For example, only 11 per cent and 6 per cent of the respondents have been to Warner Brothers Movie World and Universal Stu- dios respectively. Demographics and themes A one-way ANOVA was conducted to test the relationship between the demographic variables and visitors preferences for themes. The results are as follows. ? The results of the ANOVA revealed that visitors preferences for the adventure theme was affected by their marital status, with those being single showing a higher preference for this theme (mean ? 3:84) as shown in Table 4. ? The importance of the fantasy theme was also found to be affected by marital status. Those who were single preferred the theme, with a relatively high mean of 3. 51 in contrast to those who were mar- ried with no children (mean ? 2:30). Table 4 presents these results. ? Younger groups of respondents did not consider the history and culture theme important (mean ? 2:88) compared to those in the age group of 40 ±54 years (mean ? 4:07). Students also reported a lower mean (mean ? 2:63) towards this theme whereas the blue-collar workers and the middle-income group (HK $10,000 ±$30,000) regarded it as impor- tant. These results are presented in Tables 5, 6 and 7 below. ? The importance of the movie theme differed signi ®cantly by respondents age, marital status and occupation. Those aged between 10 and 24 years (mean ? 3:46), being single (mean ? 3:40) and students (mean ? 3:63) preferred the movie theme (Tables 4, 5 and 6). These results are consistent with the  ®ndings in an earlier study by Pearce and Dermott pertaining to the matching of demographic groups (young children, single adults and families) with the motivations for theme park visitors. The 13 ±16 year olds and the solos representing the single group viewed the rides or thrills as more important than did the family groups. Given that age and marital status are somewhat related it is not surpris- ing that respondents who are single would prefer the fantasy theme which has attributes like childhood enchantment, childrens play park, cartoon characters etc. This probably also explains why other groups such as those Table 4: Comparison of the importance of the theme to respondents by marital status Theme importance Group 1 (Single) Group 2 (Married, no child) Group 3 (Married, children at home) Group 4 (Married, children left home). ANOVA Main effect probability Adventure 3. 84 3. 10 3. 03 3. 00 . 0092A Fantasy 3. 51 2. 30 3. 26 3. 20 . 0213A Futurism 3. 49 3. 60 3. 71 2. 60 . 2191 History and culture 3. 40 3. 70 3. 65 4. 20 . 3598 International 3. 40 3. 30 3. 35 3. 80 . 7696 Movie 3. 40 3. 10 2. 68 3. 36 . 0271A Nature 3. 95 3. 90 3. 85 4. 20 . 9127 Results are presented as the mean, on a 5-point scale where 1 indicated the theme was very unimportant and 5 indicated the theme was very important. ADenotes signi ®cance at the . 05 level. Page 326 Strategic theming in theme park marketing at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from married with children who stay with parents and married with children who do not stay with parents, with the exception of empty nesters (married with no child), tend to prefer the fantasy theme. This may be attrib- uted to the fact that families with children may be more desirous of seeking entertain- ment opportunities for their children. As for the movie theme, it was found that the preference for this theme was in? uenced by several related demographic variables. Younger people, who are more likely to be single and are students, preferred going to cinemas to spend their leisure time. It seemed that the more movies they saw, the higher the probability the movie theme would be attractive to them. However, it should be noted that the number of movies watched does not necessarily correlate with the importance given the movie theme (coefficient ? :1246, p ? :210). Likewise, the educational nature contained in the his- tory and culture theme was less appealing to the younger group who are usually students, and tend to perceive history and culture as less stimulating. This study also revealed that the blue- collar section showed a preference for the history and culture theme. While the basic motivation for travel may be to achieve `a more profound appreciation of society and culture,29 blue-collar workers who earn a Table 5: Comparison of the importance of the theme to respondents by age Theme importance Group 1 (10 ±24) Group 2 (25 ±39) Group 3 (40 ±54) Group 4 (55 ±65? ) ANOVA Main effect probability Adventure 3. 92 3. 50 2. 86 3. 36 . 0587 Fantasy 3. 58 3. 25 2. 93 3. 36 . 3889 Futurism 3. 29 3. 67 3. 57 3. 27 . 4619 History and culture 2. 88 3. 65 4. 07 3. 82 . 0029A International 3. 29 3. 36 3. 36 3. 82 . 4406 Movie 3. 46 3. 05 2. 50 3. 10 . 0371A Nature 3. 79 3. 93 4. 07 4. 00 . 8699 Results are presented as the mean, on a 5-point scale where 1 indicated the theme was very unimportant and 5 indicated the theme was very important. ADenotes signi ®cance at the . 05 level. Table 6: Comparison of the importance of the theme to respondents by occupation and post Theme importance Group 1 (Business owner/self- employed/manager/ white collar) Group 2 (Blue collar) Group 3 (Student) Group 4 (Housewife/ retired/ unemployed) ANOVA Main effect probability Adventure 3. 52 3. 56 3. 69 3. 13 . 5597 Fantasy 3. 41 2. 81 3. 38 3. 31 . 3273 Futurism 3. 55 3. 75 3. 13 3. 63 . 4156 History and culture 3. 59 4. 00 2. 63 3. 88 . 0009 A International 3. 27 3. 75 3. 25 3. 63 . 1819 Movie 2. 84 3. 19 3. 63 3. 50 . 0271A Nature 3. 89 4. 19 3. 88 3. 81 . 7355 Results are presented as the mean, on a 5-point scale where 1 indicated the theme was very unimportant and 5 indicated the theme was very important. ADenotes signi ®cance at the . 05 level. Page 327 Wong and Cheung at University College Birmingham on December 27, 2014jvm. sagepub. comDownloaded from low to middle household income have lim- ited travelling opportunities and, therefore.